Female farm managers were integral to Roman agricultural operations, yet their contributions have long been misunderstood by historians. Recent research published in the Journal of Roman Archaeology reveals that these women, referred to as vilicae, played critical roles in overseeing wine production and other valuable processes vital to farming and estate profitability.
Ancient Roman texts, including legal documents, literature, and inscriptions, consistently mention female farm managers across centuries. However, traditional scholarship often confined them to domestic duties, overshadowing their actual involvement in productive agricultural activities. A closer examination of primary sources, such as the writings of Roman agronomist Columella, provides a clearer picture of their responsibilities. In his 1st-century CE manual, Columella describes the vilica as a supervisory role overseeing grape harvest processing, including juice extraction, adding preservatives and flavorings, and managing fermentation into wine—key activities for estate profits.
Columella’s text is particularly revealing because it references ideas from the Greek philosopher Xenophon, whose account emphasized women’s indoor roles. Historians often misinterpreted these references, conflating domestic oversight with agricultural management. Columella explicitly clarifies that Xenophon’s views are separate from his own, underscoring the distinction between theoretical expectations and practical rural roles.
The vilicae’s duties extended beyond winemaking. Archaeological findings indicate large-scale production processes, with wine yields reaching up to 100,000 liters annually. These operations required management of machinery, storage facilities, and labor—tasks assigned to the vilicae. Columella also highlights their role in safeguarding the fermentation process through ritual sacrifices, a practice supported by archaeological discoveries of altars in Roman wine-production buildings.
Historical records like those of Cato the Elder further corroborate these findings. Even in his 2nd-century BCE writings, Cato acknowledges female farm managers, noting their tasks included processing seasonal produce into marketable goods like olive oil. This aligns with Columella’s detailed descriptions, suggesting a continuity in women’s agricultural roles across eras.
Mosaics and wall paintings from Roman villas, such as those at the Villa Romana del Casale in Sicily, depict scenes of women engaged in seasonal agricultural work, including rituals for crop abundance. One mosaic shows a woman offering garlands at an altar for divine favor—a practice Columella prescribes for the vilicae. Another fragmentary Roman wall painting illustrates a female figure directing workers in wine-making, visually validating written accounts.
While no surviving first-person accounts exist from vilicae themselves, the convergence of literary, legal, and visual evidence demands a reassessment of their roles. Their expertise in managing complex, profitable agricultural processes challenges outdated assumptions about women’s participation in ancient economies. By reinterpreting these sources, historians can better recognize the pivotal role women played in sustaining Rome’s rural economy.
