A single day of strikes on four Iranian oil refineries released sulfur dioxide (SO₂) comparable to a volcanic eruption, according to new research.
Satellite observations from Chinese and European meteorological services indicate that fires ignited by Israeli airstrikes on March 7 at several refineries and storage sites emitted roughly 33,000 tons of SO₂ by March 8. The resulting plume traveled about 1,240 miles (2,000 km) by March 9, reaching East Asia, as reported in a study published on May 26 in *Advances in Atmospheric Sciences*.
Although the cloud largely dissipated by the end of March 9, the authors stress that the short‑lived but significant emission event must not be overlooked.
The pollutants combined with precipitation to form corrosive “black rain” laden with hydrocarbons, prompting reports of headaches, bitter taste, eye and skin irritation, and respiratory difficulties among Tehran residents, the authors note.
The broader conflict involving the United States, Israel, and Iran is already generating an extraordinary volume of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases; a separate analysis estimated that war‑related emissions between February 28 and March 14 exceeded the total annual output of Iceland in 2024.
Researchers have now mapped the size and trajectory of the SO₂ plume following the March 7 attacks on the Fardis, Shahran, and Aghdasieh depots and the Tehran Oil Refinery. Using ultraviolet and infrared hyperspectral data from China’s FengYun‑3 and the European Space Agency’s Sentinel‑5P satellites, they tracked the plume.
Measurements showed a sharp rise in atmospheric SO₂ over Tehran on March 8; the affected zone covered roughly 185,000 square miles (300,000 km²), with northeasterly winds dispersing the plume toward East Asia.
By comparison, the 2010 Eyjafjallajökull eruption released approximately 22,000 tons of SO₂ over three days, generating an ash cloud that grounded European flights for nearly a month and led to lingering respiratory issues among exposed individuals.
SO₂ is a major precursor to acid rain, which can strip nutrients from soils and contaminate waterways. In addition, exposure to sulfur‑based pollutants has been linked to depression, anxiety, and other mental‑health problems. Further research is required to clarify the specific public‑health impacts of the attacks on Iranian oil refineries.
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